What is the Pygmalion effect?
The Pygmalion effect describes how one person’s expectations about another can shape that person’s behavior and results, so that the expectation ends up coming true. It is a classroom example of the self-fulfilling prophecy, a term sociologist Robert K. Merton introduced in 1948.
The name comes from Greek myth. Pygmalion, a sculptor from Cyprus, fell in love with the statue he carved, and Aphrodite brought it to life. George Bernard Shaw later borrowed the story for his play *Pygmalion*, the basis of *My Fair Lady*.
- Introduced by
- Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson, *Pygmalion in the Classroom* (1968)
- Core idea
- High expectations can raise actual performance
- Opposite
- Golem effect (low expectations lower performance)
- Used in
- Teaching, management, coaching, parenting
The Rosenthal and Jacobson experiment
The study took place in 1964 at a public elementary school in South San Francisco, called "Oak School" in the book.
- Researchers gave all students a nonverbal intelligence test and told teachers it could predict which children would "bloom" intellectually.
- They then chose about 20% of students at random and told teachers these children were likely to show unusual gains.
- When students were retested about eight months later, the "bloomers" had gained more IQ points on average than their classmates.
- The difference was largest in first and second grade and was close to zero in the upper grades.
Rosenthal later argued that teachers communicated expectations through four channels: a warmer climate, more input, more chances to respond and more detailed feedback.
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Criticism and later research
The study drew sharp criticism. Psychologist Robert Thorndike questioned the test’s reliability for young children, some reported scores were implausible, and replications produced mixed results. In a major review, Jussim and Harber (2005) concluded that teacher expectancy effects are real but usually small, and that they tend to be stronger for younger students, students from low-income families and members of stigmatized groups.
The Pygmalion effect is not "praise them and they will succeed." It works when expectations change what teachers and managers actually do: the opportunities, feedback and patience they offer.
Related effects
| Effect | Whose belief | Direction | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pygmalion | A teacher’s or manager’s | Positive | A student labeled "promising" improves |
| Golem | A teacher’s or manager’s low expectations | Negative | An employee written off performs worse |
| Galatea | One’s own expectations | Positive | A confident learner keeps improving |
| Placebo | Expectations about a treatment | Positive | Symptoms ease after a sugar pill |
| Labeling | Society’s labels | Negative | A "troublemaker" label leads to more misbehavior |
How to use it at school and at work
- Show expectations through opportunities: rotate challenging tasks and speaking roles.
- Give specific feedback: point to the process ("You backed your claim with two sources") rather than generic praise.
- Increase wait time: pausing a few seconds after a question invites more students to answer.
- Avoid early labels: be careful with tracking and assumptions based on background.
- Apply it to teams: Dov Eden’s research with Israel Defense Forces trainees found that trainees whose instructors expected more from them performed better.
For the mechanisms behind reinforcement and motivation, see learning theories and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Frequently asked questions
- Is the Pygmalion effect the same as the Rosenthal effect?
- Yes. Both names refer to the same phenomenon. In education it is also called the teacher expectancy effect.
- Has the Pygmalion effect been proven?
- Research supports a real effect, but it is generally smaller than the original study suggested and varies by age and context.
- What is the opposite of the Pygmalion effect?
- The Golem effect, in which low expectations lead to lower performance.
References
- Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the Classroom: Teacher Expectation and Pupils’ Intellectual Development. Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
- Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1966). Teachers’ expectancies: Determinants of pupils’ IQ gains. Psychological Reports, 19(1), 115–118.
- Merton, R. K. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. The Antioch Review, 8(2), 193–210.
- Jussim, L., & Harber, K. D. (2005). Teacher expectations and self-fulfilling prophecies: Knowns and unknowns, resolved and unresolved controversies. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(2), 131–155.
- Babad, E. Y., Inbar, J., & Rosenthal, R. (1982). Pygmalion, Galatea, and the Golem: Investigations of biased and unbiased teachers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(4), 459–474.
- Eden, D. (1990). Pygmalion in Management: Productivity as a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. Lexington Books.