What is sociological theory?
Sociological theory is a body of concepts and propositions explaining social order, inequality, interaction and social change. The same phenomenon looks different through different lenses, so theories are usually studied comparatively.
Classical sociology
- Émile Durkheim treated society as "social facts" external to and constraining individuals; Suicide (1897) showed suicide rates vary with social integration and regulation.
- Karl Marx saw class conflict over the means of production as the engine of history.
- Max Weber developed interpretive sociology (Verstehen), analyzed bureaucracy and rationalization and wrote The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.
The three main perspectives
| Perspective | View of society | Key figures | Level |
|---|---|---|---|
| Structural functionalism | A system whose parts contribute to stability | Durkheim, Parsons, Merton | Macro |
| Conflict theory | Power struggles among groups over scarce resources | Marx, Dahrendorf, C. Wright Mills | Macro |
| Symbolic interactionism | Reality built through shared meanings | Mead, Blumer, Goffman | Micro |
Merton refined functionalism with manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions, and Parsons modeled society as a system with his AGIL scheme. In urban research the Chicago School established a tradition of empirical fieldwork.
Contemporary theories
- Exchange theory (Homans, Blau) and rational choice (Coleman)
- Structuration theory (Giddens): the duality of structure and agency
- Bourdieu: habitus, field, and economic, cultural and social capital
- Feminist theory and critical theory (Frankfurt School, Habermas)
Study tip
Explain one phenomenon, such as educational inequality, through each lens: functionalism sees sorting and selection, conflict theory sees class reproduction, and interactionism sees labeling in the classroom.
References
- Durkheim, É. (1897/1951). Suicide: A Study in Sociology. Free Press.
- Weber, M. (1905/1930). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Allen & Unwin.
- Parsons, T. (1951). The Social System. Free Press.
- Merton, R. K. (1968). Social Theory and Social Structure (enlarged ed.). Free Press.
- Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Prentice-Hall.
- Giddens, A. (1984). The Constitution of Society. Polity Press.
- Ritzer, G., & Stepnisky, J. (2018). Sociological Theory (10th ed.). SAGE.