Two dimensions and four combinations
Fiske and colleagues (2002) argued that stereotypes are not a single good-or-bad evaluation but often mix warmth and competence. People infer warmth when a group does not compete with them for resources and competence when it holds high status. The model therefore predicts admiration for groups high on both, such as the ingroup; pity for groups seen as warm but incompetent, such as older people; envy for groups seen as competent but cold, such as the rich; and contempt for groups seen as low on both. Together with social role theory, it became a leading account of where stereotypes come from.
Behavior and cross-cultural tests
Cuddy and colleagues (2007) proposed the BIAS map, in which warmth judgments drive active behaviors such as helping or attacking and competence judgments drive passive behaviors such as cooperating or neglecting. Fiske and colleagues (2007) argued that the two are universal dimensions used to judge both individuals and groups. Cuddy and colleagues (2009) tested the model in many countries, including South Korea and Japan, and found a similar structure, though East Asian samples showed less ingroup favoritism. Harris and Fiske (2006) found that brain regions engaged by person perception responded less to groups seen as low on both dimensions, evidence of dehumanization.
Critiques and alternatives
Koch and colleagues (2016) analyzed groups that people generated themselves rather than groups chosen by researchers and proposed the ABC model, which adds a separate conservative–progressive beliefs dimension. Koenig and Eagly (2014) argued that the roles groups occupy explain stereotypes better than status and competition. Others note that warmth blends sociability and morality. Even so, together with ambivalent sexism theory, the model remains central to understanding prejudice that looks positive on the surface.
FAQ
- What is the stereotype content model in simple terms?
- People judge other groups on whether they seem nice and whether they seem capable, and the mix leads to different feelings such as pity or envy.
- Where do warmth and competence judgments come from?
- Groups that do not compete with us tend to be seen as warm, and groups with high social status tend to be seen as competent.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26
References
- Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., Glick, P., & Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. The founding statement of the stereotype content model.
- Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., & Glick, P. (2007). The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(4), 631–648. Extends the model from stereotypes to emotions and behaviors.
- Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J. C., & Glick, P. (2007). Universal dimensions of social cognition: Warmth and competence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(2), 77–83. A concise review of warmth and competence as universal dimensions.
- Cuddy, A. J. C., Fiske, S. T., Kwan, V. S. Y., Glick, P., Demoulin, S., Leyens, J.-P., et al. (2009). Stereotype content model across cultures: Towards universal similarities and some differences. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48(1), 1–33. Cross-cultural tests of the model, including East Asian samples.
- Harris, L. T., & Fiske, S. T. (2006). Dehumanizing the lowest of the low: Neuroimaging responses to extreme out-groups. Psychological Science, 17(10), 847–853. Neuroimaging evidence of dehumanization of low-low groups.
- Koch, A., Imhoff, R., Dotsch, R., Unkelbach, C., & Alves, H. (2016). The ABC of stereotypes about groups: Agency/socioeconomic success, conservative–progressive beliefs, and communion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 110(5), 675–709. An alternative ABC model adding a beliefs dimension.
- Koenig, A. M., & Eagly, A. H. (2014). Evidence for the social role theory of stereotype content: Observations of groups' roles shape stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 107(3), 371–392. Traces stereotype content to the roles groups occupy.