Two routes to memory
Paivio (1971) argued the word 'apple' and its image are stored in different systems and linking them strengthens memory. Shepard (1967) showed people recognise hundreds of pictures with striking accuracy. Concrete words outlast abstract ones because they evoke images (Paivio, 1991), consistent with separate visual and verbal working memory processing.
Lessons from multimedia learning
Mayer and Anderson (1991) found animation with narration taught best, and Clark and Paivio (1991) urge pairing concrete images with explanation. In app onboarding, pair short sentences with visuals of the feature. Labelled icons help newcomers, and familiar users later find icons alone quickly.
When images add load
Mayer and Moreno (2003) warn that redundant narration of on-screen text or decorative images can increase load. Per cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1988), separated images and text force eye travel. Images must be relevant and adjacent to their explanation.
FAQ
- Is it the same as learning styles?
- No; everyone has both systems, while 'visual or auditory learner' claims lack support.
- Easiest UX application?
- Label icons and place relevant images beside explanations.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-27
References
- Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. The book that first set out dual coding theory.
- Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory: Retrospect and current status. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 45(3), 255–287. Paivio's twenty-year retrospective of the evidence.
- Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149–210. Applies the theory to education and instruction.
- Shepard, R. N. (1967). Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6(1), 156–163. Pictures are recognised better than words.
- Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations need narrations: An experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(4), 484–490. Animation with narration improves learning.
- Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52. Nine methods to cut multimedia load.
- Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. Explains when extra visuals add load.