Two thousand years of history
In the 1st century the Roman medical writer Celsus described inflammation in De Medicina as "redness and swelling with heat and pain" (rubor et tumor cum calore et dolore) — words still quoted in medical textbooks. In 1858 Rudolf Virchow added a fifth sign, loss of function, in his Cellular Pathology, which established that disease happens at the level of cells. In 1882 Élie Metchnikoff pushed a thorn into a starfish larva, watched cells swarm to engulf it, and discovered phagocytosis, earning the 1908 Nobel Prize. With him came the idea that inflammation is not merely harmful but a way the body defends itself.
| Sign (Latin) | Meaning | Cause |
|---|---|---|
| rubor | Redness | Dilated vessels |
| calor | Heat | Increased blood flow |
| tumor | Swelling | Leaky vessels |
| dolor | Pain | Prostaglandins, bradykinin |
| functio laesa | Loss of function | Tissue damage (added by Virchow) |
How inflammation unfolds
When tissue senses microbes or damage, resident macrophages and mast cells release signals such as histamine, prostaglandins and cytokines. Blood vessels widen and leak, letting plasma and white blood cells (mostly neutrophils) flood the site, clear the invaders and start repair. Research since the 2000s shows that inflammation does not simply fade: molecules such as lipoxins and resolvins actively switch on a resolution programme (Serhan and Savill, 2005). This response is the core of innate immunity, the first line of the immune system. When it spirals out of control throughout the body, the result can be sepsis.
Acute versus chronic inflammation
Acute inflammation is a healthy response that settles within days. If the trigger persists or regulation fails, low-grade inflammation can smoulder for months or years. Chronic inflammation is linked not only to rheumatoid arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease but to atherosclerosis, type 2 diabetes, some cancers and dementia. In 2017 the CANTOS trial showed for the first time that a drug lowering inflammation, without changing cholesterol, reduced cardiovascular events. The rise of inflammation with age has been dubbed "inflammaging". Aspirin and ibuprofen block prostaglandin production, as John Vane showed in 1971, while steroids mimic cortisol. Not smoking, regular exercise, a healthy weight, enough sleep and a diet rich in vegetables and fish are associated with lower chronic inflammation.
This article is general health information and is not a substitute for diagnosis or treatment. If symptoms persist, see a doctor.
FAQ
- Does a high CRP always mean disease?
- No. CRP can rise briefly after a cold, an injury or hard exercise. Doctors interpret it alongside symptoms and repeat tests rather than from a single reading.
- Are there anti-inflammatory foods?
- No single food switches inflammation off, but studies link Mediterranean-style eating — plenty of vegetables, fruit, whole grains, fish and olive oil — to lower inflammatory markers.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26
References
- Celsus, A. C. (c. 30 AD). De Medicina, Book III. (Loeb Classical Library ed., Spencer, W. G., trans., 1935). Harvard University Press.
- Virchow, R. (1858). Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre. Berlin: Hirschwald.
- Metchnikoff, É. (1893). Lectures on the Comparative Pathology of Inflammation. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner.
- Vane, J. R. (1971). Inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis as a mechanism of action for aspirin-like drugs. Nature New Biology, 231(25), 232–235.
- Medzhitov, R. (2008). Origin and physiological roles of inflammation. Nature, 454(7203), 428–435.
- Serhan, C. N., & Savill, J. (2005). Resolution of inflammation: The beginning programs the end. Nature Immunology, 6(12), 1191–1197.
- Ridker, P. M., et al. (2017). Antiinflammatory therapy with canakinumab for atherosclerotic disease (CANTOS). New England Journal of Medicine, 377(12), 1119–1131.
- Furman, D., et al. (2019). Chronic inflammation in the etiology of disease across the life span. Nature Medicine, 25(12), 1822–1832.
- Franceschi, C., et al. (2000). Inflamm-aging: An evolutionary perspective on immunosenescence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 908, 244–254.