Concept and origins
Merton (1940) described goal displacement in bureaucracy, where following rules becomes an end in itself. Kaufman (1977) argued that red tape is not simply incompetence but accumulates from citizens' and politicians' demands for fairness, accountability and representation; one person's red tape is another's protection.
Bozeman's definition and measurement
Bozeman (1993, 2000) defined red tape as rules and procedures that remain in force and entail a compliance burden but do not advance their legitimate purpose, distinguishing it from formalisation. Some rules are flawed from birth; others lose their purpose over time. Pandey and Kingsley (2000) compared perceptions in public and private organisations, and Pandey and Scott (2002) assessed measures. Research links red tape to lower morale and performance.
Effects on citizens and critiques
Moynihan and Herd (2010) showed how complex rules can block citizenship rights such as voting or claiming benefits, paving the way for research on administrative burden. How street-level bureaucrats apply rules also matters. Critics note that judging a rule 'unnecessary' is subjective, and that deregulation or New Public Management remedies can weaken accountability.
FAQ
- What is red tape in simple terms?
- Unnecessary rules and procedures that cost time and paperwork without achieving their purpose.
- Are all bureaucratic rules red tape?
- No. Rules that serve their purpose protect fairness and accountability; red tape is the burden without the benefit.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26
References
- Merton, R. K. (1940). Bureaucratic structure and personality. Social Forces, 18(4), 560–568. The classic account of goal displacement in bureaucracy.
- Kaufman, H. (1977). Red tape: Its origins, uses, and abuses. Brookings Institution. Argues red tape grows from demands for fairness and accountability.
- Bozeman, B. (1993). A theory of government "red tape". Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 3(3), 273–303. Defines red tape as burdensome rules that do not serve their purpose.
- Bozeman, B. (2000). Bureaucracy and red tape. Prentice Hall. A textbook separating bureaucracy from red tape.
- Pandey, S. K., & Kingsley, G. A. (2000). Examining red tape in public and private organizations: Alternative explanations from a social psychological model. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 10(4), 779–800. Compares perceived red tape in public and private organisations.
- Pandey, S. K., & Scott, P. G. (2002). Red tape: A review and assessment of concepts and measures. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 12(4), 553–580. Reviews concepts and measures of red tape.
- Moynihan, D. P., & Herd, P. (2010). Red tape and democracy: How rules affect citizenship rights. The American Review of Public Administration, 40(6), 654–670. How rules shape access to citizenship rights.