What is social contract theory?
Social contract theory says a government is legitimate not because of divine right or royal blood, but because free and equal people agreed to it. Developed in 17th- and 18th-century England and France, it laid the groundwork for modern democracy and human rights. The theorists start by imagining a state of nature with no government, then explain why people would agree to create one.
Hobbes vs. Locke vs. Rousseau
| Hobbes | Locke | Rousseau | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Main work | Leviathan (1651) | Two Treatises of Government (1689) | The Social Contract (1762) |
| State of nature | A "war of all against all"; life is "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" | Mostly peaceful, but disputes lack a fair judge | Free and equal, until private property breeds inequality |
| The deal | Hand all rights to a sovereign for security | Entrust government to protect life, liberty and property | Each gives himself to the whole community |
| Sovereign | An absolute ruler | The people (government holds power in trust) | The people (the general will) |
| Right to resist | Essentially none | Yes | Yes, against a government that betrays the general will |
Rousseau's general will
Rousseau opens The Social Contract with "Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains." He separates the will of all, a sum of private interests, from the general will, which aims at the common good. Because sovereignty is the exercise of the general will, he argued, it can't be handed over or divided, an idea that fed into popular sovereignty and direct democracy.
Why it matters
Locke's natural rights and right of revolution echo through the 1776 Declaration of Independence ("deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed"), and Rousseau's ideas shaped the French Revolution. Modern constitutions that guarantee rights and split power among branches, as in the separation of powers, build on this tradition. See also principles of democracy.
Modern versions and critiques
John Rawls revived contract thinking in A Theory of Justice (1971), asking what principles people would choose in an "original position" behind a veil of ignorance (Rawls's theory of justice). Critics note that no one actually signed such a contract (Hume), and that classic contracts left out women and people of color (Carole Pateman, Charles Mills). It is often contrasted with utilitarianism, which judges actions by their consequences.
FAQ
- Was there ever a real social contract?
- No. Most theorists use it as a hypothetical device to test whether political power is justified.
- Why did Hobbes back absolute rule?
- Living through the English Civil War, he saw the collapse of order as the worst evil and believed only a strong sovereign could keep the peace.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-25
References
- Hobbes, T. (1651). Leviathan. London: Andrew Crooke.
- Locke, J. (1689). Two Treatises of Government. London: Awnsham Churchill.
- Rousseau, J.-J. (1762). Du contrat social; ou, Principes du droit politique. Amsterdam: Marc-Michel Rey.
- Rawls, J. (1971). A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.