Concept
Kanter (1977) showed token women in corporations face visibility pressures and stereotypes. Cotter and colleagues (2001) defined the glass ceiling as disadvantage that grows at higher levels and found it for US women. Arulampalam and colleagues (2007) found widening gaps at the top of European wage distributions.
Causes
Eagly and Karau (2002) proposed role congruity theory: leader traits clash with expectations of women. Statistical discrimination, the motherhood penalty, male networks and long-hours cultures also matter. Blau and Kahn (2017) noted gaps persist most at the top.
Glass cliff and policy
Ryan and Haslam (2005) identified the glass cliff, women appointed in crises. Bertrand and colleagues (2019) found Norway's board quotas raised board diversity but had limited spillovers, linking to descriptive representation.
FAQ
- What is the glass ceiling in simple terms?
- An invisible barrier that stops capable women and minorities reaching top jobs.
- What is the glass cliff?
- The tendency to appoint women as leaders in risky crisis situations.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26
References
- Kanter, R. M. (1977). Men and women of the corporation. Basic Books. A classic on structural barriers for token women.
- Cotter, D. A., Hermsen, J. M., Ovadia, S., & Vanneman, R. (2001). The glass ceiling effect. Social Forces, 80(2), 655–681. Empirical criteria for a glass ceiling.
- Eagly, A. H., & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109(3), 573–598. Role incongruity and prejudice.
- Ryan, M. K., & Haslam, S. A. (2005). The glass cliff: Evidence that women are over-represented in precarious leadership positions. British Journal of Management, 16(2), 81–90. The glass cliff.
- Arulampalam, W., Booth, A. L., & Bryan, M. L. (2007). Is there a glass ceiling over Europe? Exploring the gender pay gap across the wage distribution. ILR Review, 60(2), 163–186. Pay gaps at the top of the distribution.
- Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. Comprehensive gender gap review.
- Bertrand, M., Black, S. E., Jensen, S., & Lleras-Muney, A. (2019). Breaking the glass ceiling? The effect of board quotas on female labour market outcomes in Norway. The Review of Economic Studies, 86(1), 191–239. Effects of Norway's board quotas.