Concept and origins
The word comes from Michael Young's (1958) satire, which warned that sorting people by 'IQ + effort = merit' would create a new class society. The term later became a positive ideal. Human capital theory is often invoked in its support.
Empirical research
Breen and Goldthorpe (1999) showed class origin still shapes destinations after accounting for ability. Goldthorpe (2003) called education-based meritocracy a myth, and Mijs (2016) argued its promise cannot be fulfilled because parental resources shape merit. This links to intergenerational mobility and the Matthew effect.
Paradoxes and critiques
Castilla and Benard (2010) found that emphasising meritocracy in organisations increased managers' gender bias. Mijs (2021) showed belief in meritocracy is stronger where inequality is greater. Sandel (2020) argued meritocracy breeds hubris among winners and humiliation among losers.
FAQ
- What is meritocracy in simple terms?
- The idea that status and rewards should follow ability and effort, not family background.
- Why is meritocracy criticised?
- Because ability is shaped by family resources, it can make inequality look fair.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26
References
- Young, M. (1958). The rise of the meritocracy, 1870–2033: An essay on education and equality. Thames and Hudson. The satire that coined the term.
- Breen, R., & Goldthorpe, J. H. (1999). Class inequality and meritocracy: A critique of Saunders and an alternative analysis. The British Journal of Sociology, 50(1), 1–27. Shows merit does not fully explain class mobility.
- Goldthorpe, J. H. (2003). The myth of education-based meritocracy. New Economy, 10(4), 234–239. The limits of education-based meritocracy.
- Castilla, E. J., & Benard, S. (2010). The paradox of meritocracy in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55(4), 543–676. Meritocratic organisations can show more bias.
- Mijs, J. J. B. (2016). The unfulfillable promise of meritocracy: Three lessons and their implications for justice in education. Social Justice Research, 29(1), 14–34. Why meritocracy's promise cannot be kept in education.
- Mijs, J. J. B. (2021). The paradox of inequality: Income inequality and belief in meritocracy go hand in hand. Socio-Economic Review, 19(1), 7–35. Inequality and meritocratic belief rise together.
- Sandel, M. J. (2020). The tyranny of merit: What's become of the common good? Farrar, Straus and Giroux. A philosophical critique of meritocracy.