What is it in simple terms?

The group you compare yourself with when judging how you are doing.

Must it be my own group?

No; aspirational groups or neighbours can serve as reference groups.

Reference Group Theory

👥 Sociology By CampusDown Wiki Editorial Team Last updated October 27, 2026

Reference group theory holds that individuals evaluate their attitudes, values and situations against particular groups, which need not be groups they actually belong to.

Contents

1. The yardstick group
2. Relative deprivation
3. Economics of comparison
4. FAQ
5. References

The yardstick group

Hyman (1942) coined the term; Merton (1968) distinguished normative from comparative reference groups and described anticipatory socialisation.

Relative deprivation

The American Soldier (Stouffer et al., 1949) found more-promoted units less satisfied; Runciman (1966) advanced relative deprivation; Shibutani (1955) treated groups as perspectives.

Economics of comparison

Clark and Oswald (1996) and Luttmer (2005) show comparison income lowers well-being, informing the Easterlin paradox and social comparison theory.

FAQ

What is it in simple terms?: The group you compare yourself with when judging how you are doing.
Must it be my own group?: No; aspirational groups or neighbours can serve as reference groups.

Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26

References

Hyman, H. H. (1942). The psychology of status. Archives of Psychology, 269, 1–94. The study that coined the term reference group.
Stouffer, S. A., Suchman, E. A., DeVinney, L. C., Star, S. A., & Williams, R. M., Jr. (1949). The American soldier: Adjustment during army life (Vol. 1). Princeton University Press. Contains the famous finding that units with more promotion were less satisfied.
Shibutani, T. (1955). Reference groups as perspectives. American Journal of Sociology, 60(6), 562–569. Reinterprets reference groups as perspectives, linking them to interactionism.
Merton, R. K. (1968). Social theory and social structure (Enlarged ed.). Free Press. Includes the chapters systematising normative and comparative reference groups.
Runciman, W. G. (1966). Relative deprivation and social justice. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Shows how choice of comparison group shapes perceptions of inequality in Britain.
Clark, A. E., & Oswald, A. J. (1996). Satisfaction and comparison income. Journal of Public Economics, 61(3), 359–381. Econometric evidence that comparison income lowers job satisfaction.
Luttmer, E. F. P. (2005). Neighbors as negatives: Relative earnings and well-being. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 120(3), 963–1002. Finds higher neighbours' earnings reduce one's own well-being.

Reports and materials that use this theory (Korean)

There are no materials dedicated to this theory yet, but you can search related reports in the CampusDown library (Korean).

Find more reports · Search '준거집단 이론' on CampusDown →

Relative deprivationWhat is relative deprivation? How it differs from absolute deprivation, the surprising findings of Stouffer’s The American Soldier (1949), Runciman’s egoistic and fraternal deprivation, what a 2012 meta-analysis of 210 studies found, and how social media comparison fits in.👥 Sociology Social Comparison TheorySocial comparison theory explained: Leon Festinger's (1954) idea that without objective standards people evaluate their abilities and opinions by comparing themselves with others. Covers the similarity hypothesis, upward and downward comparison, schadenfreude and social media.🧠 Psychology Easterlin ParadoxWhat the Easterlin paradox is: why richer people are happier at a point in time while average happiness barely rises as national income grows, its origins, explanations based on relative income and adaptation, critiques, rejoinders and the debate in happiness economics.📈 Economics Relative PovertyWhat relative poverty is: falling well short of a society's ordinary living standards. The 50% of median income threshold, Townsend's deprivation concept, Sen's absolute–relative debate, measurement issues and policy relevance.🤝 Social Welfare

Latest ArticlesView all ›

New guides for college study and assignments (Korean)

This article was last updated on October 27, 2026. It is based on widely recognized original works and textbooks; when citing it in a paper, please check the original sources listed in the references.