Measurement
The dissimilarity index analysed by Duncan and Duncan (1955) shows the share of a group that would need to change jobs to match another group's distribution. Reskin (1993) reviewed workplace sex segregation research.
Horizontal and vertical
Charles (2003) and Charles and Grusky (2004) separated horizontal segregation across fields from vertical segregation in rank, linked to the glass ceiling and to statistical discrimination.
Pay and trends
Levanon and colleagues (2009) found pay falls as occupations feminise. Blau and colleagues (2013) found US segregation fell after 1970 but slowed, which England (2010) called a stalled revolution. It connects to dual labor markets and the motherhood penalty.
FAQ
- What is occupational segregation in simple terms?
- Different groups, such as men and women, mostly work in different jobs.
- Why does it matter?
- Female-dominated jobs tend to pay less, so it drives the gender pay gap.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26
References
- Duncan, O. D., & Duncan, B. (1955). A methodological analysis of segregation indexes. American Sociological Review, 20(2), 210–217. The classic on the dissimilarity index.
- Reskin, B. (1993). Sex segregation in the workplace. Annual Review of Sociology, 19, 241–270. A broad review of workplace sex segregation.
- Charles, M. (2003). Deciphering sex segregation: Vertical and horizontal inequalities in ten national labor markets. Acta Sociologica, 46(4), 267–287. Distinguishes vertical and horizontal segregation.
- Charles, M., & Grusky, D. B. (2004). Occupational ghettos: The worldwide segregation of women and men. Stanford University Press. A worldwide comparative study.
- Levanon, A., England, P., & Allison, P. (2009). Occupational feminization and pay: Assessing causal dynamics using 1950–2000 U.S. census data. Social Forces, 88(2), 865–891. Feminised jobs see pay decline.
- England, P. (2010). The gender revolution: Uneven and stalled. Gender & Society, 24(2), 149–166. Why desegregation stalled.
- Blau, F. D., Brummund, P., & Liu, A. Y.-H. (2013). Trends in occupational segregation by gender 1970–2009: Adjusting for the impact of changes in the occupational coding system. Demography, 50(2), 471–492. Long-run US trends.