Memory-based versus on-line judgment
Hastie and Park (1986) distinguished judgments made later by retrieving memories from judgments formed as information arrives. In the latter, the correlation between judgments and recalled details is weak. This distinction became a starting point for explaining why voters hold clear preferences while struggling to state reasons.
Application to candidate evaluation
Lodge and colleagues (1989) proposed an impression-driven model in which people immediately update a running evaluation each time they encounter candidate information and soon forget the details. Lodge and colleagues (1995) showed that participants recalled little campaign information, yet that information was reflected in their evaluations, offering new evidence in debates over voter rationality after the Michigan model.
Critiques and extensions
Redlawsk (2001) countered that memory-based judgment still matters when information flows continuously. Later research moved toward a hybrid view in which both processes operate. Kim, Taber and Lodge (2010) and Lodge and Taber (2013) combined on-line processing with motivated reasoning and automatic affective responses.
FAQ
- What is the on-line processing model in simple terms?
- Each time you see information you adjust a mental score right away, and you remember the score even after forgetting the details.
- How does it differ from memory-based models?
- Memory-based models say judgments are made by recalling information at decision time, while the on-line model says judgments form as information is received.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26
References
- Hastie, R., & Park, B. (1986). The relationship between memory and judgment depends on whether the judgment task is memory-based or on-line. Psychological Review, 93(3), 258–268. Distinguishes memory-based and on-line judgment.
- Lodge, M., McGraw, K. M., & Stroh, P. (1989). An impression-driven model of candidate evaluation. American Political Science Review, 83(2), 399–419. First application to candidate evaluation.
- McGraw, K. M., Lodge, M., & Stroh, P. (1990). On-line processing in candidate evaluation: The effects of issue order, issue importance, and sophistication. Political Behavior, 12(1), 41–58. Effects of issue order and sophistication.
- Lodge, M., Steenbergen, M. R., & Brau, S. (1995). The responsive voter: Campaign information and the dynamics of candidate evaluation. American Political Science Review, 89(2), 309–326. Voters forget details but keep the evaluation.
- Redlawsk, D. P. (2001). You must remember this: A test of the on-line model of voting. The Journal of Politics, 63(1), 29–58. Shows memory still matters.
- Kim, S., Taber, C. S., & Lodge, M. (2010). A computational model of the citizen as motivated reasoner: Modeling the dynamics of the 2000 presidential election. Political Behavior, 32(1), 1–28. Computational model combining on-line processing and motivated reasoning.
- Lodge, M., & Taber, C. S. (2013). The rationalizing voter. Cambridge University Press. Synthesis with affect and automaticity.