Lewin's three-step model
Lewin (1947) saw change as a force field in which driving and restraining forces are in balance, and proposed three steps.
- Unfreezing: creating a felt need to move away from the status quo
- Moving: introducing new behaviour, structures or values
- Refreezing: stabilising the new state in rules and habits
Kotter's eight steps
Kotter (1996) set out a sequence: (1) establish a sense of urgency, (2) create a guiding coalition, (3) develop a vision and strategy, (4) communicate the vision, (5) remove obstacles and empower action, (6) generate short-term wins, (7) consolidate gains and produce more change, (8) anchor the change in the culture.
Four views of organizational change
Van de Ven and Poole (1995) grouped theories of change into four types: life-cycle (growth through set stages), teleological (purposeful adaptation towards goals), dialectical (conflict and synthesis of opposing forces) and evolutionary (variation, selection and retention).
Causes of resistance and responses
Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) named four causes of resistance: parochial self-interest, misunderstanding and lack of trust, different assessments of the change, and low tolerance for change. They advised choosing among these strategies according to the situation.
- Education and communication
- Participation and involvement (Coch & French's 1948 factory study is a classic demonstration of participation's effect)
- Facilitation and support (retraining, counselling)
- Negotiation and agreement
- Manipulation and co-optation
- Explicit and implicit coercion
The earlier strategies take time but leave less resistance; the later ones are fast but risk backlash. For an organization designed to keep changing see learning organization, and for public-sector reform see New Public Management.
References
- Lewin, K. (1947). Frontiers in group dynamics: Concept, method and reality in social science. Human Relations, 1(1), 5–41.
- Coch, L., & French, J. R. P., Jr. (1948). Overcoming resistance to change. Human Relations, 1(4), 512–532.
- Kotter, J. P., & Schlesinger, L. A. (1979). Choosing strategies for change. Harvard Business Review, 57(2), 106–114.
- Van de Ven, A. H., & Poole, M. S. (1995). Explaining development and change in organizations. Academy of Management Review, 20(3), 510–540.
- Kotter, J. P. (1996). Leading Change. Harvard Business School Press.