Origin of the model
Jennifer Crocker and Brenda Major (1989) argued that stigmatized people can protect self-esteem by attributing negative outcomes to discrimination. Branscombe et al. (1999) challenged this, arguing that perceiving pervasive discrimination, rather than a single event, signals ongoing exclusion and therefore harms well-being. In data from Black American respondents they found that perceived discrimination directly lowered well-being but also increased identification as Black, which in turn raised well-being.
Extensions
Jetten et al. (2001) found the same process in chosen minority groups such as people with body piercings. Schmitt et al. (2002) showed that perceived sexism lowered well-being for women but not for men, indicating that the meaning of discrimination depends on the group's social status. Cronin et al. (2012) followed Latino college students and provided longitudinal evidence that ethnic identification in response to discrimination protected well-being and increased activism, connecting with the social identity model of collective action.
Meta-analyses and significance
Schmitt et al.'s (2014) meta-analysis confirmed that perceived discrimination generally lowers psychological well-being, with larger effects for disadvantaged groups. Pascoe and Smart Richman (2009) likewise found perceived discrimination harmful to physical and mental health. The model shows that group identification can be a resource that partly buffers harm, but researchers stress that the buffer does not fully offset discrimination's direct damage. It is usefully read alongside research on attributional ambiguity.
FAQ
- What is the rejection-identification model in simple terms?
- Discrimination hurts, but it can also bind people more tightly to others in the same situation, and that bond eases some of the hurt.
- Does that mean the harm disappears?
- No. Identification only partly buffers it; many studies confirm that discrimination itself harms well-being.
Sources reviewed: 2026-10-26
References
- Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608–630. Prior theory that discrimination attributions protect self-esteem.
- Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135–149. The original paper proposing the model.
- Jetten, J., Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Spears, R. (2001). Rebels with a cause: Group identification as a response to perceived discrimination from the mainstream. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(9), 1204–1213. Extends the model to chosen minority groups.
- Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Kobrynowicz, D., & Owen, S. (2002). Perceiving discrimination against one's gender group has different implications for well-being in women and men. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(2), 197–210. Effects differ by group status (women vs. men).
- Cronin, T. J., Levin, S., Branscombe, N. R., van Laar, C., & Tropp, L. R. (2012). Ethnic identification in response to perceived discrimination protects well-being and promotes activism: A longitudinal study of Latino college students. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 15(3), 393–407. Longitudinal evidence linking identification to well-being and activism.
- Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554. Meta-analysis of discrimination's health effects.
- Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 921–948. Meta-analysis of discrimination and well-being.