Definition
Social learning theory explains that learning takes place in the interaction between the individual and the social environment, and especially through observation and imitation. Much of human learning happens by watching others rather than through direct trial and error, as when a child copies a parent's way of speaking or a new employee picks up how a senior colleague works.
While accepting the behaviorist principle of reinforcement, Bandura regarded the cognitive processes of remembering what has been observed and anticipating consequences as central to learning. Social learning theory is therefore seen as a bridge between behaviorism and cognitivism, and it is widely used in educational psychology, media effects research, health behavior programs, counseling and social work practice.
Key Concepts
Observational learning and modeling
Acquiring new behavior by observing the behavior of others is called observational learning, and the person observed is called a model. A model may be a real person or a character in a video or book (a symbolic model). Bandura distinguished learning (acquisition) from performance (actually carrying out the behavior), arguing that something learned may not appear in behavior if there is no motivation.
Vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement
Seeing a model rewarded makes an observer more likely to perform the behavior, which is called vicarious reinforcement; seeing a model punished inhibits the behavior, which is vicarious punishment. People also regulate their behavior through self-reinforcement, praising or criticizing themselves according to standards they set.
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura proposed triadic reciprocal determinism, in which the person (cognition and emotion), behavior and the environment influence one another. This key concept distinguishes his theory from Skinner's behaviorism, which held that the environment determines behavior one-sidedly.
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a person's belief in their capability to carry out a specific task successfully. Bandura (1977) argued that even people with the same ability differ in task choice, amount of effort and persistence in the face of difficulty depending on their self-efficacy.
Stages and Components
Four processes of observational learning
- Attention: paying attention to the model's behavior. The model's attractiveness, similarity and status have an influence.
- Retention: encoding the observed behavior in images or words and remembering it.
- Motor reproduction: turning what is remembered into actual behavior. Physical ability and practice are required.
- Motivation: expectations of direct, vicarious and self-reinforcement determine whether the behavior is performed.
Four sources of self-efficacy
- Mastery experience: the experience of succeeding oneself. This is the most powerful source.
- Vicarious experience: seeing someone similar to oneself succeed.
- Verbal persuasion: encouragement and feedback such as “You can do it.”
- Physiological and emotional states: how one interprets tension, anxiety and fatigue.
Theorists and Background
Bandura (1925–2021) was born in a small town in Alberta, Canada, earned his doctorate at the University of Iowa, and spent his whole career at Stanford University. In the Bobo doll experiment conducted with Dorothea and Sheila Ross in 1961, preschool children who watched an adult model hit and kick an inflatable doll later imitated more aggressive behavior toward the doll than children who had not (Bandura, Ross & Ross, 1961). Follow-up studies also confirmed that the degree of imitation varied with filmed models and with whether the model was rewarded or punished.
He summarized the theory in Social Learning Theory (1977) and, placing even more emphasis on the role of cognition in Social Foundations of Thought and Action (1986), renamed it social cognitive theory. Because it emphasizes learning within social interaction, it is sometimes compared with Vygotsky's sociocultural theory.
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Criticisms and Limitations
- Ecological validity of the experiment: The Bobo doll was a toy designed to be knocked over and hit, so critics argue that the children's behavior is hard to regard as genuine aggression. The laboratory setting and short observation period also limit generalization.
- Neglect of biological and developmental factors: The theory is criticized for not adequately addressing temperament, hormones or stages of cognitive development; age differences in observational learning ability can be supplemented by Piaget's theory.
- Overly broad explanatory scope: The claim that person, behavior and environment all influence one another is comprehensive, but it makes it hard to predict which factor matters and how much.
- Depth of motivation: Some argue that explaining what fundamentally drives behavior requires the help of other motivation theories, such as need theories or cognitive dissonance theory, which deals with the drive to justify one's own behavior.
Applying It in a Report
Media and adolescent aggression
The effect of violent videos and games on adolescent behavior is a classic topic. Explaining the mechanism through the four processes of observational learning and vicarious reinforcement, while also presenting the limitations of the Bobo doll experiment and counterarguments from other research, makes for a balanced report.
The CampusDown library (in Korean) also has reports that apply this theory in practice, such as 「반두라의 사회학습이론: 보보 인형 실험, 관찰학습의 네 과정, 자기 조절과 자기 효능」, 「사회학습이론과 관찰학습의 4단계 분석」. They show how the theory can be connected to real cases. For more, try the '사회학습이론' report search.
Schools and self-efficacy
For a student with math anxiety, you can propose ways to boost self-efficacy: tasks that build small successes (mastery experience), worked examples demonstrated by similar peers (vicarious experience), specific praise (verbal persuasion) and relaxation activities (emotional state). Comparing reward design based on successful experiences with Skinner's principles of reinforcement works well.
Social work and health programs
In a proposal for a smoking cessation, exercise or independent living program, presenting peer mentors (modeling), step-by-step goal setting and self-monitoring (self-reinforcement) as core strategies produces a practice plan grounded in social cognitive theory.
References
- Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1961). Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), 575–582.
- Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191–215.
- Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
- Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. New York: W. H. Freeman.