What is motivation?
Motivation is the internal force that sets the direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. It is studied in both psychology and organizational behavior and used to understand learning, work and health behavior.
Content theories: what motivates
- Maslow's hierarchy (1943): physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self-actualization needs.
- Alderfer's ERG theory (1969): existence, relatedness and growth, plus frustration-regression when higher needs are blocked.
- Herzberg's two-factor theory (1959): hygiene factors such as pay and conditions only reduce dissatisfaction, while motivators such as achievement, recognition and the work itself create satisfaction.
- McClelland's needs theory: needs for achievement, power and affiliation.
Process theories: how motivation arises
- Vroom's expectancy theory (1964): motivation = expectancy × instrumentality × valence.
- Adams's equity theory (1963): people compare their input-to-outcome ratio with others and act to reduce perceived inequity.
- Locke and Latham's goal-setting theory: specific, difficult goals lead to higher performance than vague "do your best" goals.
Self-determination theory
Deci and Ryan describe a continuum from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation and argue that intrinsic motivation grows when three basic needs, autonomy, competence and relatedness, are met. Research showing that external rewards can undermine intrinsic interest comes from this tradition. Bandura's self-efficacy is another key construct.
Critiques and applications
- Maslow's strict hierarchy has weak empirical support.
- Herzberg's findings have been criticized as an artifact of the critical incident method.
- In practice, goal setting, fair rewards and autonomy are often combined, linking motivation closely to leadership research.
References
- Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-396.
- Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The Motivation to Work. Wiley.
- Alderfer, C. P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4(2), 142-175.
- Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation. Wiley.
- Adams, J. S. (1963). Toward an understanding of inequity. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(5), 422-436.
- Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation. American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717.
- Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.