Main theories
- Hall's high and low context: high-context cultures such as Korea and Japan carry meaning in relationships and settings; low-context cultures such as the US and Germany rely on explicit words (1976).
- Hofstede's dimensions: from IBM surveys, power distance, individualism-collectivism, masculinity-femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation and indulgence-restraint.
- Anxiety/uncertainty management: Gudykunst argued effective communication with strangers requires keeping anxiety and uncertainty within optimal bounds.
- Face-negotiation theory: Ting-Toomey showed cultures differ in how they protect self-face and other-face in conflict.
- DMIS: Bennett traced development from denial, defence and minimisation to acceptance, adaptation and integration.
Uses
The theories guide international negotiation, support for multicultural families, counselling migrants and students, and global teams, though national generalisations can mask individual variation.
References
- Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond Culture. Anchor Books.
- Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and Organizations (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
- Gudykunst, W. B. (Ed.). (2005). Theorizing About Intercultural Communication. Sage.
- Bennett, M. J. (1986). A developmental approach to training for intercultural sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10(2), 179-196.